Whereas force majeure is now considered as an adequate way to designate the complete impossibility situation (even in the English language: see Article 7.1.7. Unidroit Principles), there is no generally admitted term in the various European legal system for the hardship situation. This leads to much confusion. In the leading system in this matter, German Law,
4See the International Chamber of Commerce brochure:Force majeure and Hardship, ICC Publication No. 421, 1985.
5H. G. Beale, W.D. Bishop, M. V. Furmston, Contract - Cases & Materials, Chapter 16: Discharge by Frustration, pp. 459 499, 4th ed. 2001.
6Restatement Second, Contracts, §§ 261 ff.
7Towards a European Civil Code. Nijmegen 1994, pp. 210 ff.
8 See for instance the ICC brochure referred to in note 4.
9A. de Laubadère et Y. Gaudemet, Traité de Droit administratif, T.I., 16th ed. 2001, Nos 1408-1493.
10In Davis Contractors Ltd v. Farenham UDC (1956) 2 AII ER 145, HL.; on the English doctrine of Frustration, Mc Kendrick. ed., Frustration and Force Majeure - Their Relationship and a Comparative Assessment, 1991. It has been suggested that the courts also have the power to adapt the contract (Zweigert & Koetz (1996), p. 550), but no example has been given and some judges - such as Lord Radcliffe - have given, obiter, an opposite opinion.
11Aluminium Co of America v. Essex Group, 499 F Supp 53 (1980. US Dist. Ct, WD Pa 1980). E.A. Farnsworth, Contracts, 2nd ed., 1990, pp. 506, 527 and note 48; Restatement 2nd Contracts, §§ 261 ff.
12K. Larenz, Lehrbuch des Schuldrechts, I, Allgemeiner Teil, 14th ed., 1997, pp. 320 ff. The German case law on this point has been integrated in the BGB by the recent reform of the Law of Obligations, in the new § 313, with the title: "Stoerung der Geschäftsgrundlage". The new Civil Code of the Russian Federationhas adopted hardship along the same lines: art. 451.
4See the International Chamber of Commerce brochure:Force majeure and Hardship, ICC Publication No. 421, 1985.
5H. G. Beale, W.D. Bishop, M. V. Furmston, Contract - Cases & Materials, Chapter 16: Discharge by Frustration, pp. 459 499, 4th ed. 2001.
6Restatement Second, Contracts, §§ 261 ff.
7Towards a European Civil Code. Nijmegen 1994, pp. 210 ff.
8 See for instance the ICC brochure referred to in note 4.
9A. de Laubadère et Y. Gaudemet, Traité de Droit administratif, T.I., 16th ed. 2001, Nos 1408-1493.
10In Davis Contractors Ltd v. Farenham UDC (1956) 2 AII ER 145, HL.; on the English doctrine of Frustration, Mc Kendrick. ed., Frustration and Force Majeure - Their Relationship and a Comparative Assessment, 1991. It has been suggested that the courts also have the power to adapt the contract (Zweigert & Koetz (1996), p. 550), but no example has been given and some judges - such as Lord Radcliffe - have given, obiter, an opposite opinion.
11Aluminium Co of America v. Essex Group, 499 F Supp 53 (1980. US Dist. Ct, WD Pa 1980). E.A. Farnsworth, Contracts, 2nd ed., 1990, pp. 506, 527 and note 48; Restatement 2nd Contracts, §§ 261 ff.
12K. Larenz, Lehrbuch des Schuldrechts, I, Allgemeiner Teil, 14th ed., 1997, pp. 320 ff. The German case law on this point has been integrated in the BGB by the recent reform of the Law of Obligations, in the new § 313, with the title: "Stoerung der Geschäftsgrundlage". The new Civil Code of the Russian Federationhas adopted hardship along the same lines: art. 451.